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Identification is determining who a user is, or what something is. Authentication is an operating system s attempt to verify the digital identity of someone or something attempting to communicate with the computer, such as a request to log in to the system. The sender attempting to be authenticated might be an actual person using a computer, a computer itself attempting to authenticate, or a computer program looking to run software on the machine. For example, if you were attempting to install software, authentication is the act of your Mac asking for your username and password and verifying that you are who you say you are. NOTE: Because authentication is the act of establishing or confirming something as authentic, a key security component of authentication is to protect authentication attempts, such as passwords or key pairs in transit. Authorization is a process that determines whether a user has access to a given resource. All modern multiuser operating systems include an authorization process. This gives the operating system the ability to identify users and then verify whether they have the appropriate credentials to access a resource. Permissions are generally defined by a system administrator, either on the computer itself or in a networked environment. On

In addition to these important directives used in the virtual host file, other directives specify the options for the directories offered by your virtual hosts. These directives do not differ from directives with the same purpose on real Apache web servers. Listing 22-3 shows an example. Listing 22-3. Example of a Directive in a Virtual Host File <Directory "/srv/www/vhosts/dummy-host.example.com/cgi-bin"> AllowOverride None Options +ExecCGI -Includes Order allow,deny Allow from all </Directory> This example should be pretty clear, except maybe the line Options +ExecCGI -Includes. The purpose of this line is to allow the user to activate any script that is in the directory /srv/www/ vhosts/dummy-host.example.com/cgi-bin.

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Mac OS X, the authorization process starts with the /etc/authorization file, which contains rules used when authorizing users. Authorization can also be extensible using pluggable authentication modules (PAMs), which were initially developed by Sun Microsystems. A PAM allows multiple authentication schemes to be integrated with new software so that programs that rely on authentication can be written independently of the underlying authentication scheme. Verifying that the person sending you information is really who they say they are is obviously desirable all the time. Authentication, however, is time-consuming, and can inconvenience users while resulting in overhead on the authentication services. To make situations like this more convenient and efficient, many systems use a method of Identification, a procedure that verifies the person or entity authenticating is the same one it communicated with when they last authenticated. The means of identification can be established through the use of a ticket or token issued when authentication is complete. This saves the user from being required to authenticate on each communication with the server.

In most situations, a web server is publicly available, and everyone can access all the information offered by the web server. In some situations, however, it may be necessary to add some extra layer of security and protect some directories on your web server. Without using any additional modules, Apache offers two methods of access restriction: user-based and host-based access restrictions. In the following sections, you ll learn how to configure both.

Note 6 illustrates in detail how to create controller tests that virtually eliminate the problem of unit tests needing to know too much about the code under test.

Apache offers three directives to configure host-based access restrictions: allow: Hosts or networks that are listed after this directive are allowed access to the web server deny: Hosts or networks that are listed after this directive are denied access to the web server order: This directive determines how the allow and deny are applied Listing 22-4 shows you how you can set allow and deny to protect a directory on a server Note that the document root will always have its own settings, which can be overwritten at a lower level In this example, you see how the default access permissions for the document root are set Listing 22-4 Default Access Restrictions for the Document Root <Directory "/srv/www/htdocs"> Order allow,deny Allow from all </Directory> In this example, you can see that first the order in which access restrictions are evaluated is set In this case, Order is set to allow,deny.

One example of a situation where security and usability often collide is in the deployment of one-time passwords. A one-time password is a password that must be changed each time you log in to your computer. This effectively makes any intercepted password good for only the brief interval of time before the legitimate user logs in the next time. This way, if someone intercepts a password, it would probably already be expired or be on the verge of expiration within a matter of hours. For nearly every situation, this is too much security and impacts the ability of users to remember passwords. In our experience, when one-time passwords are deployed, it typically means users are writing passwords down. Anytime your password policy causes users to have to write down their passwords, it is a good idea to review whether you are being too strict with password policies. For example, if passwords are too complicated to remember, people will invariably write them down. This is how the kid in the movie War Games got into his school computer, thus sparking an entire generation of hackers.

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